Nicholas of Cusa's Reformatio Generalis

A Translation

A general reformation, conceived by the most reverend lord Nicholas of Cusa, Cardinal of St. Peter in Chains.¹

1 [p.19] In order that this our reformation may be understood by all minds to be just and necessary for salvation, it is fitting to preface it with certain lofty considerations—namely, the reason why man was created. The Apostle Paul, speaking to the wise men of Greece as he preached the Gospel in the Areopagus of Athens, asserted that this was “to seek God, if perhaps they might grope for him or find him” [Acts 17:27]. And this is nothing other than that man was created to see God “in his glory” [cf. Ps 63:3 or John 17:24]. [p.20] For we see that the intellectual nature, as a participant in the goodness of God, is inclined toward showing itself and toward participation, just as the books of the wise teach us—books which were written for this very reason: that each person might manifest his understanding and call others to its participation. In like manner, the divine goodness created intellectual nature in order to make itself visible to it; and therefore all other things were created for the sake of intellectual nature, as it were a book in which the intellect may seek the wisdom of God himself, through whom all things were made. For this reason man possesses the sense of sight and other senses as organs and instruments by which he may marvel and be stirred up to seek that wisdom, and might even grasp it, if he could. But man, ignorant of the language or word of God by which the book of creation was written, was unable by all his own power to attain to that wisdom or creative art—unless that Word were made known to him. Just as someone who does not know the language or the word of a book may form many conjectures about its contents, yet cannot truly know anything without a teacher.

2 [p.21] All men, therefore, who “by nature desire to know” were able to conjecture rightly that the teaching inherent in creation is an immortal art and wisdom and a light that illumines and leads the intellect to perfection, making it blessed and happy, since it is the goal of desire. But God, seeing the ignorance that caused all to stray from the knowledge of God and of his wisdom, took pity on humanity and sent into this world the longed-for teacher whom all were most eager to see, that he might take away ignorance and enlighten all who come to him; this teacher had to be the very Word and Master “in whom are hidden all the treasures” of the desired “wisdom.” Therefore God sent the “Word made flesh,” his beloved Son, “full of grace and truth,” commanding that he be heard, giving power to all who received him to become his children, “to those who believe in his name.” And this is the one commandment of God the Father—namely, to believe in his Son and envoy, who is also his Word, “to believe in his name.” For whoever receives him as such undoubtedly believes in him and knows that all the things he proclaims are true, because he is the Son and Word of God. Christ therefore came and chose disciples from the world and built a church from those who were faithful to him, which is sustained and given life by his teaching and by the Spirit [p.22], and in which he will remain at all times. Therefore, the union of the faithful is in him, his Church, of which he himself is the head. Whoever lives and moves in this faith—that Jesus Christ, son of the Virgin Mary, is true, or rather, is Truth itself, having the “words of eternal life”—this faith gives all holiness and knowledge and righteousness and whatever leads to beatitude. For whoever truly believes this undoubtedly keeps his commandments and does not sin. For he has overcome the evil one and the world and its desires, knowing that there is no life except in the promises of Christ, and that no one is justified except the one whom Christ justifies by the merit of his death. This man too can say with the Apostle that he knows nothing “except Christ, and him crucified,” in whom he has obtained the highest and complete knowledge—namely, faith, through which the righteous lives.

3 [p.23] Since we have now received the Church of God, “founded” most firmly “upon the rock,” to be governed—not according to another faith nor other forms than those we have received from Christ the head, and from the holy apostles and their successors, the rulers of the Church—we are obliged to inquire not into anything else, but only to apply ourselves, insofar as it is granted by heavenly grace (casting off the depraved concupiscence of this world, which is not of the kingdom of Christ—for “the world” and “its desire shall pass away”), that we may all be made Christ-like, and “each in his own order,” so that we may be “heirs of God” and “co-heirs with Christ,” the only Son of God, in the participation of the immortal life of the kingdom. For he, “being in the form of God,” he “who alone” dwells in “immortality,” assumed our mortal nature and the form of a servant, that he might unite it to his divine nature in such a way that it would pass into the form of his immortality. Hence, since the nature of Christ’s humanity—our head—and our own is one and the same, which in him alone has taken on the form of God, it is not possible for man to attain the kingdom of immortality except by taking on the form of Christ himself the Lord. This form is acquired through imitation. Therefore the Apostle—through whom Christ spoke, having been formed in him—says: “Be imitators of God as beloved children”; and elsewhere: “Be imitators of me, as I am of Christ”; and again: “Be imitators of me, brothers, and observe those who walk in this way, as you have our example.”

4 [p.24] Those of us, therefore, who have succeeded to the place of the apostles, that we may clothe others with the form of Christ through our own example, must necessarily be Christ-like before others. Now human nature has from God, above all creatures of this world, the capacity for being taught—a capacity God implanted in man, that he might attain happiness. “Therefore they shall all be taught by God.” And we see that incorruptible virtues and unity are shared by many through practice and instruction. But Christ, our King and Lord of virtues, and therefore King of Glory, is that living virtue who gives eternal rest to all who participate in him, “in whom are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge.” The Master therefore cries out to us, his disciples who long to be transformed into his likeness, saying: “Learn from me, for I am meek and humble of heart, and you will find rest for your souls.” And elsewhere, when he showed his humility by the washing of feet, he said: “For I have given you an example, that as I have done, so you also may do.” For he taught by doing: “he began to do and to teach,” wishing to show that not every moral virtue grants eternal life, but only that one which is so living that it overcomes this corruptible world—as it did in Christ himself, the first conqueror of the world. [p.25] In every Christ-like soul, virtue must live in such a way that, for the sake of virtue—which is the life of the spirit—this sensible life is held as nothing. For this is the love of Christ: to hold virtue so dear that to give up the world for it, and even to die, is considered a small thing and a glory. These are the “imitators” of whom the Apostle says that “through faith and patience” they inherit “the promises.” Now “all Scripture, divinely inspired,” strives to reveal nothing other than Christ as the form of virtues and of immortal life and eternal blessedness, which all desire. Those who receive him as the one teacher of life, through faith and works, are thereby formed in such a way that they become capable of eternal life. But to be capable is not the same as possessing it; it is necessary that Christ communicate and give it to them—he who possesses it not only by the merit of his virtuous obedience, so that he is “in the glory of the Father,” but also so that he might give it to those capable of receiving it, that they might possess it from his merit and lay claim to it in justice. For by grace we are called to the inheritance which, unless we attain it through the justice of Christ’s merits, we cannot reach the final degree of happiness. For this reason, he “became our justice,” when he offered himself to death for all; and in him, all who have died shall live by the just judgment of God [p.27] eternally. For God the Father, the most just rewarder, gives immortal life in Christ to all who die in obedience to him. Therefore, all things necessary for perfect happiness—whether grace or justice—cannot be had without him. He, then, is the only mediator, in whom is everything, and without whom it is impossible for us truly to be made happy.

5 We, therefore, who desire to reform all Christians, can propose to them no other form for imitation than that of Christ, from whom they have received their name. He is the living law and the perfect form, in whom the judgment of eternal life and death is made. Conformed to him are the sons of life, the blessed, who are called to possess the kingdom of God. But those deformed from him, being sons of death and accursed, “will be cast into Gehenna.” [p.28] Therefore, our whole effort must be that we be cleansed through penance and put on again the form of innocence, which we received in the washing of Christ. For then, when “Christ appears in the glory of God the Father,” “we shall be like him”—that is, of the same form, which is found only in the kingdom of God, toward which we strive.

6 Now since the Church of God is the mystical body of Christ, it is rightly compared by the Apostle to the human body, in which “in the life-giving Spirit” all the members are united so that they may live, just as in the whole body of the Church all the members are enlivened by the Spirit of Christ, to whom in this world all the faithful adhere through faith. But the diversity of the members of the Church is bound together by a certain bond or glue of Christ’s love [p.29], and they assume diverse offices “for the building up of the body”; and they are “members one of another,” each of which is content to be what it is, so long as it is joined to the life-giving Spirit. There are eyes, through which the individual members are visited and adapted to their proper offices; and if those eyes are full of light, “the whole body will be full of light.” For they visit the body and its individual members and do not allow any filth or shameful darkness to cling to them. But if the eye is dark, “the whole body will be full of darkness.” Therefore, in the Church, if the eyes—who ought to be “the lamp of the body”—are darkness, then it is certainly true that “the whole body” is “dark.” Now it is well known that the body of the Church in our time has greatly strayed from the light and the day and is wrapped in dark shadows, above all because the eyes, who ought to have been its “light,” have turned into “darkness.” And because the eye that sees the faults of others does not see its own, the eye cannot visit itself; rather, it must be subjected to another who may visit [p.30] it, correct it, and cleanse it, so that it may be made fit to visit the members of the body. From this we draw two necessary conclusions for our purpose: first, that we, who are the eyes, must submit ourselves to those who have sound vision, lest we be deceived to our own ruin and to the ruin of the Church we are to visit, by trusting ourselves as though we had clear sight. Second, that after this, we must turn our eyes—now enlightened—upon the whole body of the Church and diligently visit its individual members ourselves or through those who act in our stead, as stewards who will give to God a strict account of the Church entrusted to us and of all souls, unless we have made every effort possible in this matter. We shall begin with our Roman Church and Curia, and thereafter send visitors to each of the provinces. The rules that visitors acting in our stead must observe, we have resolved to set down here.

7 We wish to choose and appoint three visitors—serious and mature men in whom the form of Christ shines forth clearly—who prefer truth [p.31] above all else, who possess zeal for God, appropriate knowledge and prudence, and who expect no further honors or wealth, so that they may be free and pure in judgment, thought, and action, burdening no one, but being content with food and clothing as determined by law, and bound to these conditions by oath. To them we entrust the fourteen rules written below.

8 First, we desire that they begin the act of visitation with devout ceremonies, accompanied by the fear of God and the word of God, solemnly and publicly. They should explain why they have come, dispose those to be visited toward obedience, setting before them the form of Christ. After this, before all else, they are to choose three of the more mature men among those to be visited, and have them publicly swear to speak the truth concerning observances and customs; and they should examine each of them on these matters. What they hear, the notary shall record, so that once they are informed of the status and practices currently in use, they may, if necessary, introduce a better form or else praise and confirm the good they find. Then they should proceed to visit individuals and address those matters pertaining to their office.

9 Second, we attend to what is read in 2 Maccabees 7 [p.32], where it says: “There is no truth or judgment in them, for they have transgressed the covenant and the oath that they swore.” From this we learn that the deformity—namely, that “there is no truth or judgment” among the Christian people—is properly the transgression of constitutions and oaths. Therefore we desire that the visitors take care to reform people by leading them back to their original form: that is, all Christians generally, to the form they took on in baptism when they became Christians; prelates, beyond this, to the form they received when they became prelates; kings and princes likewise to the form they took on at the time of their appointment; the same for priests and benefice-holders, and for religious, and in general for all officials and others who, beyond the baptismal form to which they solemnly bound themselves in order to be Christians, have also taken on another form by entering into public dignities, offices, and religious lives, binding themselves to God by vow, oath, or any kind of promise. And because all lawful and honest promises made to God must be kept under pain of salvation, it is necessary for visitors to either restore transgressors to that form or expel them. Therefore, visitors [p.33] must know those forms of oaths, vows, and promises; and so, above all, they must strive to obtain them from all sides.

10 Third, we will that if the aforesaid forms have perhaps been neglected in certain provinces through bad custom and negligence, then the visitors shall introduce those forms which, according to the law, they find ought to be observed—for instance, if religious do not make profession, or if bishops and priests make no oath or promise at the time of ordination, or not those which are contained in the Canons and Pontifical Books. And since such persons are no less bound to observe the rules and canons, the canon which mandates that such things also be promised is to be fully enforced, and transgressors—since they are not absolved from observance of the canons by bad custom—are to be restored, no less than in the previous case, to the form set down in the Canon and the Pastorale, or else be removed.

11 Fourth, beyond the oaths, vows, and promises, which must in every way be most strictly observed—and to this end we wish each person to be compelled by the visitors—we also will that each person live canonically according to the etymology and rationale of his name. For the life of each person is defined in the definition of his name. For one who behaves otherwise than his name indicates is falsely so called, and is unworthy of the name, since his life contradicts its meaning. [p.34] For he is a liar, as is said in Decretum Gratiani, Distinction 22, question 5, Cavete, where it is written: “Beware, brothers, of lying, for all who love a lie are children of the devil. Lies are not only in false words, but also in feigned deeds. For it is a lie to call oneself a Christian and not to do the works of Christ. It is a lie to profess oneself a bishop, priest, or cleric and to act contrary to that order.” So far the text. For how can one truthfully be called a Christian whose life is contrary to Christ? Or how a religious who is an apostate? How a monk who roams about in cities? How a canon who is irregular? How a priest who is profane? How a pastor who flees his cure? How a rector who is absent? How a bishop who does not oversee the flock entrusted to him? How a duke who is a deceiver? How a king who is a tyrant? And so on in each case.

12 [p.35] Fifth, in particular with respect to benefice-holders, we desire that the visitors ensure that they observe the canons concerning habit and tonsure, chastity, conduct, office, and divine service. Likewise, we will that all benefices retain their proper character according to their original institution, as far as this may be possible, declaring that all incorporations, dispensations, and commendations granted by us and our predecessors—where no express abrogation of the original foundation appears—are to be understood accordingly; and thus we declare they are to be understood by all and by the visitors themselves, namely, without any diminution of divine worship, just as is customarily stated in effect in the Apostolic Letters. For the Church of Christ has not been entrusted to us for destruction or diminution, but for the building up and increase of the Church and of divine worship. Therefore we decree that wherever the visitors find that, in any benefice, divine worship has been neglected due to any dispensation [p.36] regarding incompatibilities, or incorporation, or commendation granted by us or our predecessors, unless that worship is immediately restored there to what it was and ought to have been before our dispensation, incorporation, or commendation, the visitors are to provide for that benefice lawfully, by our authority, as though it were actually vacant. By the term benefice in this place we wish to be understood, in general, all ecclesiastical revenues which serve as the title of the officeholder, either from the foundation or otherwise by right and custom, whether it be any dignity whatsoever—even an abbacy, provostship, or other inferior dignity—or a parish church, or any other dignity or benefice requiring personal residence, of whatever condition or value.

13 Sixth, we will that if the visitors find divine worship diminished because someone who holds several—even mutually compatible—benefices neglects in certain ones to fulfill the obligation required by the benefice, either personally or through another, then—since it is not fitting for anyone to occupy even several compatible benefices to the detriment of divine worship—they should ensure that the one holding the title discharges the service personally or through another. Otherwise, they shall provide for the benefice by our authority [p.37], as though it were in fact vacant, for we decree that any such benefice where divine worship is thus neglected is to be considered vacant. And by the term benefice here we wish all such positions to be understood as those which, by custom, may be held simultaneously without Apostolic dispensation.

14 Seventh, we will that pontificates, abbacies, provostships, deanships, archdeaconries, scholasteries, treasurerships, and all such offices—whether they are called dignities or offices in cathedral or collegiate churches—be considered incompatible with other such positions in another collegiate church, since no one can be in two places at once and simultaneously discharge both duties personally or through another, and divine worship and its beauty are thereby diminished. Therefore, we will that, wherever the visitors find someone holding several such positions in different places, they should ensure that he chooses one place to serve and resign the other to someone who can fulfill the office. Otherwise, the visitors themselves are to provide for the vacancy—even if a dispensation or contrary custom exists.

15 Eighth, we will that, where the visitors find parish churches incorporated into any cathedral, collegiate church, or monastery—since such incorporations were made to increase divine worship in the cathedrals, collegiate churches, and monasteries themselves, without neglecting the parishes—and they do not find that divine worship has increased after the incorporation compared to before, or do not find that the canonical hours, day and night, are celebrated devoutly with the altar service, they are to ensure that, in the parish churches, all revenues are held and expended as if no incorporation had ever been made, for the sake of increasing divine worship. For incorporations were not made so that canons or religious might live more luxuriously and in idleness, but that the number of those serving God there day and night in devotion might be increased.

16 Ninth, we will that, if any religious refuse to admit or hear the visitors and claim to hold privileges, exemptions, or other such things from the Apostolic See—since these were granted to them only because they were humble and obedient and beloved of God and the Apostolic See, for their observance of the rule and that they might observe it with greater peace—therefore, unless they immediately obey and resume and continue observance of the rule, the Apostolic privileges are to be revoked in our name by the visitors.

17 [p.39] Tenth, we will that, if the visitors find that any cathedral or collegiate churches possess Apostolic exemptions, incorporations of churches, or any other privileges—whether Apostolic or granted by ordinaries—and refuse to admit visitation and correction, such institutions, because of their rebellion and incorrigibility, do not deserve any grace. Therefore, all their privileges, whether granted by us or by the ordinaries, are to be revoked by our authority, and divine worship is to be interdicted in those places by the visitors.

18 Eleventh, we will that if the visitors find anyone—whether religious or others—who, by obstinate audacity, have despised censures issued either by law, or by us, or by our legates or the ordinaries, involving themselves in divine matters contrary to the prohibition of law or man, we will that such persons be declared irregular, despisers of the keys, deprived of their benefices, and declared unfit for the ministry at the altar, being prohibited from entering the church; and further, that the visitors forbid all Christians, under penalty of eternal damnation and latae sententiae excommunication, from supporting them, attending their Masses, or participating with them in any way. Otherwise, without any further declaration, they are to be regarded and avoided by all Christians as excommunicated.

19 Twelfth, let the visitors take care in the reformation of hospitals, that alms be applied to the poor according to the original institution, the wills, and the bequests; and let accountability be required from those who oversee them. Likewise, let them attend to the fabric of churches, that no fraud be committed, and to itinerant preachers, who fail to miss an opportunity to deceive the people wherever they can. Let them also watch strictly over the cloisters and reform of nuns, to eliminate many scandals and the great wrath of God, when those who have dedicated themselves to Christ as his brides by solemn vow, by shameful excess draw many clerics and laypeople into ruin with them—as has already been sufficiently provided for in law concerning all these matters. Let the visitors enforce those provisions in practice and see to it that they are strictly observed.

20 Thirteenth, we will that when the visitors inspect churches, sacristies, ornaments, books, chalices, and such things, they do not neglect to examine the relics and to inquire into the evidence for their authenticity; and where they find the same relics claimed in different places—since they cannot be in both—and there is doubt as to where the true ones are, [p.41] they should exercise good judgment in removing scandal from the people, and it is better to prohibit their display than to permit scandal. Let them also be watchful that no profit be made from relics or from miraculous blood of the host. For profit is the reason why such things are often falsified by the greedy. Wherever they see people flocking to the display of relics or of such hosts for gain, let them either prohibit the display or forbid offerings under severe penalty. Likewise, if there is a rush of people to an image or a place on account of alleged or reported miracles, let them prohibit either the pilgrimage or the offering. For greed often introduces falsehoods in place of truths, in order to acquire by deception what it cannot obtain through truth. Let it suffice the Christian people to have Christ truly present in his Church in the sacrament of the holy Eucharist, in which they have all that can be desired for salvation. Let them indeed venerate relics, but far more Christ, the head of all the saints; and let them beware, lest, while many abuse Christ and the relics for their own temporal advantage, turning religion into profit, they provide fuel for divine offense—unless they amend their ways.

21 Fourteenth, let the visitors be vigilant with diligence in eradicating public usurers, adulterers, and those who despise the commands of the Church. Let them condemn and eliminate partiality, and cleanse all places of sorcery and incantations and of all such sins by which the divine majesty and the Christian commonwealth are greatly offended. Let them strive to make the Church a pure bride pleasing to God, as the Church of the early Christians was—worthy to be transferred from the Church militant to the Church triumphant and to enjoy perpetual happiness there.

22 In these fourteen rules, the visitors will find the pattern for reforming everyone, to which every sound mind will assent. No good man will be found rebellious, since no one is being led back to anything other than what he himself chose to be, publicly professed, and from which he has taken his name and is called. Therefore, those who contradict the visitors contradict themselves and are not to be heard but corrected.

23 We, who unworthily hold the vicarship of Christ over his militant Church, profess ourselves bound to the profession, observance, and guardianship of the orthodox Christian faith, and to all the obligations to which our predecessors are found to have bound themselves when they were elevated to the papacy, and also to those things proposed to us at the time of our assumption [p.43], which we accepted—including the observance of the sacred canons, insofar as they do not stand in the way of the Church’s edification. For just as the power given to us divinely for the building up of the Church cannot be limited by human constitutions, so also we do not wish to presume that anything is permitted to us contrary to the statutes of the holy Fathers, insofar as those statutes do not resist that same power. For we know that we are called pope because we are to be the father of fathers; and patriarch, because we are, more than anyone, bound to that to which all fathers are bound; also archbishop, because among the bishops who diligently oversee, we are to hold the primacy; we are also called bishop, because we are held to oversee [p.44] the divine flock with greater attentiveness; and we acknowledge ourselves to be a priest, because we know that those things which pertain to the priestly office most especially concern us. Because of all these exalted and Christ-like aspects of holiness, the name Christian servant of God is fittingly attributed to us by God’s servants—of whom we acknowledge ourselves to be the servant, as our Lord says according to Mark: “Whoever would be first among you shall be the servant of all.”

24 If we glory in all these names, then surely we ought to strive to be what we are called, and to show by our actions what we profess ourselves to be. And lest we be deceived in our own cause by our own judgment, we entreat the visitors, chosen in the place of God, to visit and judge us diligently, assuring them that we are ready to accept with the greatest gratitude the form they judge to be fitting for us—regarding our person, household, curia, and all things pertaining to the dignity and office of the papacy. Let them not be afraid to visit the pope, when in the same man they see the vicar of Christ, they also see the servant of Christians; and in him whom they see as father of fathers, they also see the servant of servants; [p.45] and in him whom they see singularly exalted and most holy in dignity, they also see one who is, in common with other men, liable to sin and weakness, and who knows himself to be such, and who according to the doctrine of the Gospel professes that precedence and greatness consist not in domination but in the ministry of building up the Church. Therefore, whatever they find in us that does not edify, but rather scandalizes the Church, let them make it known to us fully, so that we may correct it. For we wish, with God’s help, to escape the fearful judgment upon one who scandalizes the Church, and to await, from our labors “in the land of the living,” the best portion of faithful stewards.

25 Since, by the gift of God, we desire with all our heart to fulfill the office entrusted to us, and for this reason we desire correction of our errors from the visitors with willing spirit, it is only fitting that our venerable brothers, the cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, and indeed the entire ecclesiastical order, likewise submit themselves to the correction of the visitors. And although the general rules set forth above include all that is suitable for visitation, there are nonetheless three particular points to which special attention must be given in the case of the cardinals: first, that they have zeal for the house of God; [p.46] second, that they be faithful and free in counsel; third, that they be exemplary men, whom other ecclesiastics may look to as a model for living.

26 The first is indeed necessary, since their vocation is directed to this very thing. For those called to the cardinalate ought to be the firm hinges (cardines) of the Church, on which every movement is stabilized and every wavering is made firm. For in the college itself there is a kind of consensus of the entire Church dispersed throughout the world. This is why they choose the pastor of the Church; and in whomever they agree upon, the Church—represented in them—also agrees. They therefore join us in forming a daily, succinct council of the Church, as it were legates of the nations, and are parts and members of our mystical body, that is, of the Holy Roman Apostolic and Catholic Church; and they are in us as the Church is in her pontiff, and we in them as the bishop is in the Church. [p.47] Therefore, they must be men chosen by God, grave and venerable, removed from all levity. Since they are not cardinals for their own sake, but in order to cooperate with the Supreme Pontiff in the building up of the Church, how shall they carry out their office diligently without zeal? If they have zeal, they will take care that buyers and sellers are not permitted in the temple, but, if they are there, are shamefully cast out. Nor will they seek to promote unworthy persons, even if they are relatives or servants, but rather those who, according to canonical sanctions, can build up the house of God by word and example.

27 The second is no less essential to a good cardinal. For how can one be a cardinal if his counsels are not faithful, and how can they be faithful if they are not free? That which binds counsel consists of favors, hatreds, partiality, and the like. Therefore, if a cardinal is the protector of a nation, a prince, or a community, and on account of any benefit to himself his counsel is bound, he is compromised. If he hopes to receive gifts because of favorable reports made in consistory, he has been bought. A perfect cardinal must therefore impose upon himself a firm law to spurn gifts, to expect no more even when he already receives three or four thousand florins annually, and to avoid all the flatteries of this world [p.48] that could draw him away from giving faithful and free counsel.

28 The third is clearly required for the edification of the Church. For since the cardinals ought to be the foremost leaders of religion—as they are named in the canons—and since they can build up the universal Church more through example than through words, they are indeed more obliged than others to lead an exemplary life, on account of the precedence of their office. For their life must correspond to their rank. They ought therefore to be content with a respectable and suitable household, with a moderate number of attendants and horses, as our predecessors established—so that in the Curia the number of household members does not exceed forty persons and twenty-four horses—and likewise [p.49] in all things, so that they may not be reproached either for excessive plurality of benefices or for the excessive number of churches they hold, nor for the neglect of divine worship in the places where they are beneficed. Indeed, it would be praiseworthy beyond measure if a cardinal were content with a single title of the cardinalate, and if each of his benefices were enjoyed by its own titled holder, who would respond annually to him with a portion of the revenues proportionate to the nature of the benefice. In this way he would free himself from much care and criticism.

29 Certainly, there is no ornament more fitting for a cardinal than that he show himself in outward habit, bearing, and decorum to be a servant of Christ, despising all pomp, which “is from the devil.” The College of Cardinals is one; why then are there so many varieties of capes? Is the religion of Saint Peter more lax than that of some other saint—so that those who are not bound to the order of any other religious community, even though they are leaders and guardians of all religious orders, are permitted to appear publicly now in red, now in blue, and in whatever capes they please? We believe that the form [p.50] of the cape is a sign of religion, and that each brother of the sacred college ought rightly to be content with one of the colors granted to priests in the Canons—just as other religious in the college do not alter the habit required by their rule. Disparity of habits seems a sign of levity and greatly detracts from the gravity of such great men. Likewise, in the clothing of their household members, there should be nothing found that might give offense or suggest frivolity, so that the attendants may show to all what sort of lord they serve.

30 As for the table of a cardinal, it ought to be regulated in such a way that only what is necessary for nourishment appears, without an excessive number of luxurious dishes or precious vessels; there should be reading at meals, and discussion after grace, conducted with dignity. Let the visitors oversee and properly arrange all these things. Likewise with regard to the decoration of halls and chambers: remove superfluities, and permit only those things that serve cleanliness [p.51]; and let the oratory or chapel, where the cardinal ought daily to read or devoutly hear Mass, be adorned in a way most worthy of the praise of God. These things we have reminded the visitors of briefly, leaving the rest to their judgment, that they may act according to what they find, in such a way that the Catholic Church may rejoice in so holy and divine a college, and in cardinals who are truly worthy leaders of the Christian religion and justly to be imitated.

31 After this, let the visitors apply themselves—following the above rules—to the reformation of divine worship in the city of Rome. Let them begin with the principal papal basilicas, then proceed to the titles of the cardinals, then to the religious, and finally let them not forget the hospitals. There is no need to add anything further to the rules already stated, since they are sufficient. For when each person keeps what he has sworn or vowed to observe, and devoutly fulfills it, gives himself to the canonical hours and to the divine office of the Mass at the proper times, diligently performs the care entrusted to him, and bears the habit and tonsure as law and religion prescribe—yet unless he considers himself an unworthy servant of God, he ought not to boast of being perfectly reformed. [p.52] Let the visitors be mindful to ensure that the servants of God are clean from all filth of the flesh, and by no means allow concubinarians to prolong the pleasures of their lusts on the alms of Christ. Let them also turn their attention to the care of books necessary for divine worship—not only that they be present, but that they be corrected and conform to the Roman rite. The sacred vestments of those who celebrate the divine mysteries should be intact and clean. Churches, as far as possible, should be whole, properly enclosed, and repaired, so that they may be fit and devout for divine services.

32 With regard to the persons found in our Curia, let the visitors observe whether they are among the necessary ones, such as cardinals and officials, or others beyond these; and let them investigate the reasons why they reside in the Curia. If they do not find just and necessary reasons—and the individuals are bishops, abbots, or others holding benefices—let them not be permitted to waste time in our Curia, but be sent back to their own places to serve God. For it is not fitting that our Curia should provide prelates, benefice-holders, and religious with freedom to roam about and to pursue higher dignities and the plurality of benefices, which is a most pernicious opportunity. For it is deeply unfitting that a bishop or abbot, who already has a bride betrothed to him in faith, and whose betrothal he bears in the form of a ring, should desert her [p.53] by his absence or spend his efforts in the Curia trying to take another bride while still bound to the first—and to fulfill his ambitions, not only serve and flatter cardinals, but even subordinate officials, currying their favor with gifts and services so that they might advocate for him whenever a desirable benefice becomes vacant. The greed of such men—which is idolatry—must not be encouraged, but extinguished. In every promotion, those prelates who are suspected of avarice and ambition should be passed over in favor of those who reside near their churches, being grave, just, beloved by God, and faithful stewards. As for those who claim to be envoys and ambassadors of princes and under that pretext pursue curial advancement, let them, once their embassy is concluded or after a suitable period granted for their affairs, be sent back to their churches. We acknowledge that prelates often require the assistance of the Roman Pontiff; but when they come to Rome according to the oath they have made to visit the thresholds of the apostles, they may conveniently take care of such matters. Nor do we will that benefice-holders, who follow the Curia not out of necessity but out of greed, enjoy the privileges granted to curial officials concerning the receipt of revenues and other prerogatives. It is not our intention to attract benefice-holders to the Curia and to increase its size to the offense of God and the diminution of divine worship. All those, however, who remain in the Curia for just causes, we will that they comport themselves in morals, conduct, dress, tonsure [p.54], and the reading of the canonical hours, as the law requires. If any courtiers—even laymen—are found to be pimps, concubinarians, gamblers, or deceivers who deviate from honesty, we order them to be completely expelled from our Curia.

33 Let the visitors turn their attention to the offices of the Curia, and first examine the Penitentiary. According to the rules above, let them summon all members of the office before the Major Penitentiary, and after an appropriate address for visitation and spiritual preparation, let them, as the rule prescribes, choose three experienced men from among them through whom they may be informed regarding the office, its personnel, statutes, oaths, and observances. Then let them begin the visitation from the head, and examine whether the requisite gravity, zeal, knowledge, diligence, experience, purity of hands, vigilance, and care proper to so holy an office are found in the head. Then let them deal likewise with the twelve Minor Penitentiaries, who must be from diverse nations, since people from all nations come to Rome for the salvation of their souls, and the confessors must understand them and be familiar with their country. These confessors must also be knowledgeable in sacred Scripture and the canons. [p.55] They must also know the penitential canons and the forms of penance—both solemn and public, as well as private—established by the holy Fathers and our predecessors, so that they may increase the severity of penance for penitents according to the gravity of their sins, by applying the prescribed penances. If these penitentiaries are found to be frivolous or ignorant, or transgressors of their oaths and statutes, without zeal for souls and given over to greed in an office where the reception of gifts is abominable to all good men, they should be expelled without hesitation. Let it also be enjoined upon them that, when dealing with pilgrims who have committed homicide or mutilation of clerics or others in sacred orders, they send them back to their homelands with letters requiring them to repeat their public penance every year, with some visible act of humility and devotion, so that the enormity of their sin may be made known to all through their penance. The same should be done for other public crimes, including homicide, describing the required penance in writing and not referring the matter entirely to the ordinaries, who might not dare to impose such penance.

34 For in the case of public sins, public penance must be evident, for the edification of the Church. And they must especially take care that the ease of obtaining pardon does not increase offenses rather than diminish them. Above all, no favoritism should be found among them, since they hold the place of Christ. The scribes of the Penitentiary should be those who write personally and understand what they write; and no one should be admitted to sacred functions unless he observes [p.56] his oath, is honest and clean, and does not exceed the fee limits established by our predecessors for their labors. Anyone who does otherwise must be expelled. Let it also be permitted to anyone to submit petitions, present them, and seek the issuing of letters either personally or through any intermediary—whether or not that person is an official of the Penitentiary; and those who intrude themselves into this process and deceive or burden pilgrims should be punished and expelled from the Curia.

35 And since in all the offices of the Curia there are oaths and constitutions that contain the form which officials are bound to observe, let the visitors proceed in all cases in the same way as previously stated. Let them remove all innovations introduced for the sake of profit and restore the ancient form. Even if it cannot be done better for now, let them at least restore the entire Curia to the form it had when Pope Martin [p.57] began to govern.

General Reformation conceived by the Most Reverend Lord Nicholas of Cusa, Cardinal of St. Peter in Chains.

Excerpt (Vatican Archives, Concilium 78, fol. 371r = V3)

36 [p.58] From the Reformation of Cardinal de Cusa. The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, who elect the Supreme Pontiff and, as legates of the nations, form with him an almost daily council and are members of the body of the Supreme Pontiff himself, must be removed from all levity. For they are able to edify the universal Church more by example than by word. And since they are cardinals not for themselves nor for their own advantage, but in order to cooperate with the Supreme Pontiff in the building up of the Church, they ought to be diligent in rightly carrying out their office, giving faithful and free counsel, setting aside all hatred and affection. And since, because of the priority of their office, they are more obliged than others to lead an exemplary life, they ought to be a good example to others in the Church, content with an honest household, which they are bound to instruct in the fear of God. Moreover, since no ornament is more fitting in a cardinal than that he show himself outwardly to be a servant of Christ, he should utterly spurn all pomp, which is from the devil, and diligently exercise himself in works of charity. He should govern his title and any other responsibilities he may have well, visiting them frequently and making use of faithful ministers with good conscience.

1. Translated from the Latin text of Nicolai de Cusa Opuscula ecclesiastica. Epistula ad Rodericum Sancium et Reformatio generalis, ed. Hans Gerhard Senger (Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 2008).